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教育專題 ◎ 2005-09-30
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教 育 專 題 深 入 報 導《2005-09-30》

本期內容
  ◎鼓勵生嬰兒 法國政府付錢 
  ◎歐洲面臨大挑戰 
  ◎歐洲的新移民 
  ◎台灣立報徵文啟事 



鼓勵生嬰兒 法國政府付錢
  策劃、編譯■成怡夏
France plans to pay cash for more babies

為提昇婦女生育率,法國政府計劃補助因生產第三胎而終止工作,想要全心照顧孩子的中產階級女性,在生產後一年,每月補助一千歐元──這筆費用已接近法國法定的最低工資,補助費用之高,將成為全歐洲之冠。

儘管法國女性就業率在歐洲大陸名列前矛,法國政府卻始終擔心,受過良好教育的女性對於生孩子這件事感到勉強。因此,一項日前由總理德維勒班公布的計劃顯示,政府有意將生育補助金提高一倍,以刺激國人加入生產報國行列。

統計數字顯示,在整個歐洲都面臨人口減少問題之際,法國卻擁有平均一名婦女生育1.9個孩子的高生育率,這個數字高過全歐洲平均一名婦女生育1.4名孩子,僅較愛爾蘭的生育率為低。另外,足以自傲的是,法國也是歐盟國家中女性就業率最高的國家之一:統計顯示,法國25到49歲的婦女中81%有工作,擁有兩個孩子的婦女就業率也高達75%,超過兩個以上孩子的婦女就業率則為51%。

不過最近一份由法國家庭協會聯盟會長胡博特‧畢恩發表的報告卻警告說,即使法國擁有高生育率,也無法阻止人口縮減的事實。其中一個原因是中產階級和專業婦女延遲成家的年齡(2004年平均結婚年齡為29.6歲),以及婦女兩次受孕的間隔時間拉長(平均來說,法國婦女第一胎和第二胎的時間間隔大約接近4年);結果是,愈來愈少婦女願意生育超過兩個孩子。

法國政府希望透過提高現在每月512歐元的補助金,逆轉這種趨勢。這份補助金只適用於第三胎,時間為期一年。但是這份補助金會按照母親原有的薪資作些微調整,一般預期最高補助金額為一千歐元,已接近法國最低工資的一個月1千2百歐元。

「過去的補助金對那些工資不高的母親有吸引力,對那些具備專業證照和在高度競爭力職場工作的女性來說沒什麼誘因。」頂尖的社會政策專家多明尼克‧梅達表示:「現在的政策對這些婦女來說,會是額外的鼓勵。這或許也會鼓勵了某些父親願意放下一年的工作。」

從1970年代就開始推動的法國家庭政策,其目標在於改善國家的生育率,並讓女性維持就業。「其主旨在於讓女性在有孩子後不需要停止工作,即使生3個小孩也是如此。」梅達這麼表示。

法國政府想要讓女性輕鬆擁有孩子,因此從讓女性願意暫時停止工作卻不用擔心經濟上有損失,或是提供實惠又高品質的托兒服務兩方面雙管齊下。

按照法國現行的生育政策,婦女生第一個孩子可以享有20週的產假,生第3胎則擁有40週甚至更多的產假,且還能領取全薪。再加上生育補助金、津貼和免稅額提高等措施配合,已經增加傳統法國一個家庭有3個孩子的比率。

同時,國營或是各州經營的托兒所,招收2個月以上的孩子,已經在過去10年逐漸擴張;而國家註冊的褓母的數字也在增加中。依家庭收入,照顧孩子的費用從不須一毛錢到富裕家庭的一個月5百歐元都有,托兒所每天上午8時30分開門,直到下午4時30分,免費招收所有3歲以上孩童。「比起其他國家,我們的托育系統是非常好的。」3個孩子的母親,現年37歲的希爾薇‧克拉克這麼說:「說真的,在法國,你可以擁有3個孩子卻不需要面臨財務上的劇烈震盪,也不用擔心之後是否可以重返職場的問題。」

克拉克是個銀行行員,她說由於雇主提供即為寬容慷慨的產假,她生3個孩子時,都花上一年時間辭掉工作專心照顧他們,也因此,她從未考慮過請更多的育嬰假來照顧孩子。她說:「對於大部分人來說,得到接近最低工資的補助也許吸引力還是不夠的,我不確定對那些具有高競爭力工作的女性而言,會因為這些補助而這麼做。到頭來,想生第三胎絕對不會是因為有補助,而是擁有第三個孩子這種嚮往,才會讓人願意去生第三胎。」(資料來源/英國衛報)
(回目錄)



歐洲面臨大挑戰
  策劃、編譯■成怡夏
Europe's big challenge

摘要

在這個世紀結束前,穆斯林會成為歐洲的多數人口?先聽一個故事。一位資深新加坡穆斯林最近前往澳洲的一所清真寺聽道,他對講道內容全部與中東地區相關感到驚訝。他認為,這位宗教領袖應當談論當地的失業率和教育機會才對。

從他的反應中,不難看出一個趨勢:不僅澳洲某些清真寺關心中東政治議題,就連新加坡人都認為講道者不應只關心心靈層面議題,而該以溫和不激進的態度關心當地政治問題。這也顯示出,儘管伊斯蘭教派相當多元分歧,但是伊斯蘭宗教界仍有嚴重的政教不分問題。

不用說,絕大多數的穆斯林都遵守法律且崇尚和平,對於少數狂熱份子的舉動不用負擔任何責任;然而,整個伊斯蘭社群都需承認某些伊斯蘭團體中極端主義意識型態的危險性;也因此,對大部分西方社會來說,如何整合少數族裔的穆斯林都是最優先的課題。

而歐洲,將面臨比任何地方都更為迫在眉睫的任務。去年華盛頓季刊一篇關於歐洲伊斯蘭教的分析就十分鞭闢入裡。這篇文章以「歐洲與伊斯蘭教,新月正盈,文化衝突」為題,由美國外交官員提摩太‧塞維奇所著。他參考大量的現存研究報告後,得到歐洲的穆斯林地位惡化,以及歐洲政治秩序無法處理這種情勢的結論。危機正隱約可見。

從文章一開始,人口的統計數字就比其他資料更讓我們震驚。塞維奇寫道:「某些人甚至預言到2025年之前,法國人口有1/4為穆斯林;如果這種趨勢繼續下去,在這個世紀中葉之前,穆斯林人數在法國,或是整個西歐地區,會超越非穆斯林族裔。」

不管這樣的結果會不會真的實現,確定的是,穆斯林人口將會比現在佔歐洲人數的比例大上許多。根據塞維奇的說法,歐洲現在有2千3百萬穆斯林,大約佔總人口的5%。這個數字在往後30年會成長一倍以上,且還會繼續加速成長。非穆斯林的歐洲人,相反的,數目絕對是減少中。

同時,中東和北非是世界上生育率第二高的地區,歐洲則是生育率最低的地區。縱然在移民政策上愈來愈緊縮,每年還是有一百萬到150萬的合法或非法的新移民來到歐洲。可能大部分都是來自中東和北非地區,大部分都是穆斯林。

另外,歐洲內部的穆斯林人口多為年輕人,大約都正處在生兒育女的階段,法國5百萬的穆斯林人口中有1/3是20歲以下;德國4百萬的穆斯林中有1/3是18歲以下;英國160萬穆斯林人口中則有1/3是15歲以下。所以,舉例來說,儘管法國穆斯林只佔人口的8%,卻在即將邁入生兒育女階段的人數中佔相對高的比例。

更重要的是,在歐洲,穆斯林的生育率為非穆斯林生育率的3倍,到了2015年,歐洲穆斯林人口將會至少增加一倍,而非穆斯林人口則會減少至少3.5個百分點。如果土耳其加入歐盟,這個數字應該會更驚人。

假如有普遍的和平與合理的公民和諧存在,有多少穆斯林住在歐洲都不至於構成威脅或某種警告。沒有人應該因為他的社會團體、種族或是宗教受到負面的評價與對待。但是這種人口上的改變必然會帶來政策制定上的挑戰。塞維奇在報導說,歐洲當局認為有1%到2%的穆斯林涉及極端主義活動,也就是有23萬到48萬人與極端主義活動相關,這個數字相當嚇人。

做為外交官,塞維奇坦白地評論道:「在某些評估中,歐洲正進入一個人口結構、經濟、心理和政治上的衰落,這也讓因歐洲穆斯林人口衍生的整合、包容與認同問題變得更加困難。」

塞維奇還報導了許多相當令人驚訝的發現,最值得注意的是,第二代和第三代歐洲穆斯林比起他們的父母和祖父母,更加感覺無法融入歐洲社會。他寫道:「假如任何導向穆斯林分化和疏離感的事物愈來愈壯大,年輕一代就處在領導地位。」

這是歐洲特有的問題,塞維奇指出歐洲只有拙劣的政策,且缺乏把外來者視為完全平等的公民的傳統,這方面,歐洲比起傳統移民國家的美國和澳洲來得遜色多了,美澳兩國已經成功把大量來自不同背景與地區的新移民整合到他們的社會中,美澳的國籍和公民身分取得從來不與種族相關,所以一位新移民可以較為輕易取得或買到國籍身分。

不過部分的問題還是出在伊斯蘭教徒的意識型態。塞維奇評論911事件的劫機者中有幾人是在歐洲變得激進的,根據塞維奇的研究來看,特定少數族群的歐洲經驗會讓他們容易變成極端主義份子。

(資料來源/http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au)

原文

Europe have a Muslim majority by the end of this centu-ry? But first a story. Last year I interviewed a senior Singaporean Muslim. He was surprised on a recent visit to Australia to hear a sermon at a mosque entirely about the Middle East. The imam, he said, should have been talking about local unemployment and educational opportunities.

The lesson from his reaction is not just that preaching in some Australian mosques concentrates on the politics of the Middle East but that even the Singaporean believed that the preacher should not focus on spiritual issues but moderate, local politics. While Islam is diverse, what this story illustrates is the lack of a distinction between church and state in much of Islam.

It goes without saying that the overwhelming majority of Muslims, in this country and others, are law abiding and peaceful citizens who do not bear any responsibility for the actions of fanatics. Nonetheless, the whole Islamic com-munity needs to address the dangers of extremism growing out of ideologies promoted in some Islamic circles. Suc-cessfully integrating Muslim minorities is going to be a top priority for all Western societies.

And now to Europe, which will face this task more pressingly than anywhere else. The most fascinating analy-sis of European Islam I have seen appeared last year in the Washington Quarterly. (I am indebted to Malcolm Turn-bull for directing me to it.)

Entitled "Europe and Islam, Crescent Waxing, Cultures Clashing", it was written by Timothy Savage, a serving US diplomat writing in his private capacity. It synthesises a great deal of existing research and comes to the conclusion that the position of Europe's Muslims is worsening and the European political order cannot deal with it. Crisis looms.

For a start, the demographic statistics are much more startling than anything we've realised. Savage writes: "Some even predict that one-fourth of France's population could be Muslim by 2025 and that, if trends continue, Mus-lims could outnumber non-Muslims in France and perhaps all western Europe by mid-century."

That's at the high end of possible outcomes and may not come about for many reasons, but whatever happens Mus-lims will be a dramatically larger share of Europe than they are now. According to Savage there are 23million Muslims in Europe, about 5 per cent of the total population. This fig-ure has more than doubled in three decades and the growth rate is accelerating. Non-Muslim Europeans, on the other hand, are declining absolutely in numbers.

Meanwhile, the Middle East and North Africa have the second highest fertility rate in the world and Europe the lowest. Notwithstanding tougher rules on immigration, something like one million to 1.5 million new immigrants come to Europe legally and illegally each year. Probably most are from the Middle East and North Africa, mostly Muslim.

Similarly, within Europe the Muslim populations are young and just about to enter their child-bearing years. One-third of France's five million Muslims are under 20, one-third of Germany's four million Muslims are under 18 and one-third of Britain's 1.6 million Muslims are under 15. So while France's Muslims, for example, are only 8 per cent of the population, they are a much higher percentage of the cohort about to enter child-bearing years. Most im-portantly, the Muslim birthrate in Europe is more than three times the non-Muslim birthrate. By 2015, Europe's Muslim population will at least double while its non-Mus-lim population will decline by at least 3.5per cent. If Turkey joins the EU, these trends get another big kick a-long.

None of this is meant to be alarmist. It doesn't matter how many Muslims live in Europe if there is general peace and reasonable civic harmony. And nobody should ever be judged negatively because of their membership of a social group, race or religion. But this demographic change does pose policy challenges. Savage reports that European au-thorities believe 1per cent to 2 per cent of Muslims are in-volved in extremist activities; that is, 230,000 to 480,000. That's an awful lot of people.

For a diplomat, Savage doesn't mince his words. He comments: "In the estimates of some, Europe is entering a period of demographic, economic, psychological and po-litical decline, which will make it all the more difficult to address the additional challenges of integration, tolerance and identity posed by Europe's Muslim population."

Savage reports much fascinating survey material, the most concerning of which is that second and third-genera-tion European Muslims feel less integrated into European societies than did their parents and grandparents.

"If anything," he writes, "the trend towards Muslim dif-ferentiation and alienation appears to be growing stronger, with the younger generation in the vanguard." He quotes extensive survey data on this.

Much of this is a specifically European problem, Savage argues. He doesn't use these words but it's fair to infer that Europe has crummy settlement policies and lacks the tra-dition of seeing outsiders as full citizens. In this, Europe has been much less successful than traditional immigrant nations such as the US and Australia, which have been far better at integrating vastly diverse waves of newcomers in-to their societies. The US and Australia have the benefit of never having citizenship and nationality associated with ethnicity, so a newcomer can more easily buy into the na-tional identity.

But part of the problem is also Islamist ideology. Savage comments that several of the 9/11 hijackers were radi-calised in Europe. There seems to be, according to research Savage quotes, something about the specifically European expe-rience of Is-lam that pre-dis-poses a cer-tain mi-nority to ex-trem-ism.

No doubt Sav-age's inter-preta-tion can be chal-lenged on many grounds. But mak-ing Mus-lim com-muni-ties feel and be suc-cess-ful is a big policy task for West-ern soci-eties and one that needs the kind of hon-est and de-tailed con-sider-ation the Washing-ton Quar-terly has pro-vided.

http://www.theaustralian.news.com.au
(回目錄)



歐洲的新移民
  策劃、編譯■成怡夏
由於經濟的發展和生育率的低落,歐洲許多地區又回復原始樣貌,野狼成群遷徙到這些人煙鮮至的地區,成為歐洲的新移民。在德國與波蘭的邊界,一百多年前,迅速增加且對土地需索無度的人口殺光了這裡最後的狼群;今天,拜這裡超低的生育率和大批遷移的人口所賜,這裡又成為狼群聚集的國度。

全世界25個生育率最低的國家中,歐洲佔了22個。根據聯合國人口區域報告顯示,儘管有大量移民遷入,歐洲人口在2030年之前還是會減少4千1百萬。人口大量減少將會衝擊歐洲的農村,大批長久經營農業、畜牧業等土地在未來將會出現全然不同的風貌。柏林人口發展研究所所長克林霍爾茲就說,大部分歐洲地區將會重新自然化。熊會重新出現在奧地利,瑞士的山谷將會由田地重新變回森林,而山貓和鶚鳥也會重新劃定其疆界。(資料來源/新聞週刊)
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