══════════════════【立報】═══════════════════ |
教 育 專 題 深 入 報 導《2006-05-05》 |
本期內容 | |
◎國際專題:水俁病50年 | |
◎含汞疫苗危害印度兒童健康 | |
◎吾思吾師 找回教師熱情與尊嚴徵文比賽 |
國際專題:水俁病50年 | |
策劃、編譯■唐澄暐、侯美如 | |
在她離大阪長居公園不遠小但舒適的居所內,71歲的(土反)本美代子在任何人眼中都是親切的老奶奶。但她溫暖的微笑和謙恭的態度隱藏著巨大的悲劇。(土反)本是水俁病上千患者中的一人。 「我吃藥想醫好疼痛,但沒有用。我的手腳沒辦法完全自由移動,右眼也差不多瞎了。」她說。「我得小心別那麼用力,免得整個垮掉。」 (土反)本的生命反映著日本最嚴重的汙染災難的眾多犧牲者。水俁病的災難,是一必須由企業、過度自信的政府官僚、冷漠的政客和發現時企圖說謊的墮落科學家共同犯下的罪。 這個悲劇喚醒了日本和全世界,看清戰後蓬勃發展的工業所要付出的環境與人命代價。 但這也是一個關於堅決的受害者和支持者,和新日本氮肥公司(新日本窒素肥料,現改制為Chisso Corp)及政府對抗數十年,終於迫使他們負責的普通人的故事。 1956年5月1日,日本熊本縣水俁市,僱用當地將近60%工作者的新日本氮肥水俁工廠(新日本窒素肥料水俁工場),其附屬醫院裡4個人同時出現一種不尋常的疾病。 院長細川一在1954年就在一死亡案例見過類似的症狀。但早在1946年,當地人就知道一種「貓跳舞」病,貓在死前會瘋狂的抽搐。 細川擔心這可能是流行病,立刻將新疾病通報水俁保健所。這就是現在被稱為水俁病的第一次正式通告。 這是個恐怖的疾病。1956年夏天一份來自熊本大學的報告描述了這疾病殺人速度之快。 在一個研究者紀錄的案例中,一位28歲女性開始抱怨指頭麻木,聽說能力受損。3天後,麻木延伸至嘴巴。一週後,她就幾乎無法步行了。 就在她首次抱怨的3週後,她因肌肉痙攣而入院治療,並常常發出咆哮聲。6週後,她陷入半昏迷狀態,無法自己進食,她的臉和嘴巴已完全癱瘓。她的體溫上升,瞳孔放大,咆哮不止。 在她最初抱怨麻木的7週後,她死了。 1957年1月,熊本大學研究者公佈,新日本氮肥水俁工廠排出含重金屬液體進入水俁海灣,是造成疾病的原因。兩年後,他們更進一步把目標鎖定在排放物中的有機汞。 新日本氮肥水俁工廠使用有機汞來製造乙醛和乙烯基氯化物。1932年間,當工廠開始運轉,以及1968年工場轉換到其他生產流程時,估計工廠傾倒了27噸汞污染的廢棄物進入水俁灣。 汙染物隨即進入食物鏈,一開始是貝類,然後是大魚,最後是人類。 新日本氮肥對熊本大學結論的第一反應是抵制。公司在學術界和業界的盟友集結起來對抗。 工業組織的頭頭錯誤地宣稱,這種疾病是由戰後丟入海灣的爆裂物所造成的。 在1956到1959年間,至少30人死於汞中毒,生病的人更多。 在當地漁民舉行抗議要求公司停止向海灣傾倒汞,並與警方發生嚴重衝突後,1959年達成了一項協議,新日本氮肥得以只付弔唁費而不用承擔責任。 而受害者卻因為他們試圖隱藏的水俁病患身分,以及挑戰當地公認的大老闆而被傳統社會不留情地對待。 他們之中,每個小孩拿到3萬日圓,每個成人拿到10萬日圓,每一死亡案例則是30萬日圓,而且必須同意,不得再向公司提出更進一步的賠償。 協議簽訂後6個月,新日本氮肥繼續在海灣傾倒含汞廢液。 原本以為一切就這樣神不知鬼不覺的,直到1965年,新潟縣忽然爆發病情。 新潟縣的受害者立刻對應當負責化學公司「昭和電工」提出告訴;這鼓舞了水俁的受害者將新日本氮肥拉進法庭。 20個熊本縣的家庭代表112位病患,在熊本地方法院對新日本氮肥提出控訴。1973年,熊本原告勝訴,並與汙染者簽下賠償同意書,給予每位病患1千6百萬至1千8百萬日圓,另外再加上醫療費用。 6年後,新日本氮肥的前任總裁和水俁工場的經理被判疏失謀殺罪名成立,而在最高法院1988年駁回上訴後,被判刑兩年。 1973年的裁決並沒有就使議題終結,因為這並沒有滿足一個問題:那些苦於水俁病卻沒有被正式認定為受害者而無法獲得賠償的人該怎麼辦? 1977年,當時的日本環境廳,因為害怕過去的更多受害者出面,因而將水俁病認定標準變的更為嚴苛,但遭科學界與醫療界批評環境廳的資格限制根本沒有充分科學依據。 這個決定因而推動了另一波由隱藏受害者提出的訴訟。 1995年12月,由社會黨首相村山富市居中協調,使未確認的病人每人得到260萬日圓。 為了符合資格,申請者必須展現他們四肢都失去知覺,並收回法律控訴。 此外,5個不同團體的受害者各獲得494萬元,而且儘管政府並未正式承擔責任,村山仍為政府道歉。 最後有1萬人收到了補償金,但有一小群在關西的原告繼續在法庭奮鬥,持續要求中央政府負責。 2004年10月,最高法院命令中央及熊本縣政府對於水俁病的散布有共同責任。 「最高法院的命令的意義是廢除了環境廳1977年匆促訂下的受害者認證方針,而使更多人能夠具備受害者資格。」關西水俁病原告團長川上敏行表示。「但到目前為止,環境省依舊沒有放鬆其資格限制。」 包括川上在內將近1萬9千人,在3月提出要求資格認定。過去近50年中,超過9百位水俁病患者過世,政府認定的受害者僅有3千人。 還有上千人繼續受苦,而水俁病的症狀繼續出現在多年前吃下水俁灣海產的子孫身上。 「死者不會復生。5月1日,當政府舉行儀式紀念水俁病首度通報的50周年,官方將會記住死者。但官方更得記得那些還活著受苦的人。」(土反)本女士說。 「不論是水俁病或石棉污染,都是一樣的汙染。這會影響家庭與下一代,而我不希望任何其他家庭或孩子還要經歷水俁病患者所曾經歷的。」 (資料來源:http://search.japantimes.co.jp/cgi- bin/nn20060502f1.html) OSAKA -- In her small but comfortable house not far from Osaka's Nagai Park, 71-year-old Miyoko Sakamoto is everybody's idea of a kindly grandmother. But her warm smile and courteous manner belie a great tragedy. For Sakamoto is one of thousands of people with Minamata disease. "I take medicine to ease the pain, but there is no cure. I don't have complete freedom of movement in my arms and legs, and am now almost blind in my right eye." she said. "I have to be careful not to exert myself too hard, or I'll collapse." Sakamoto's life reflects the human toll of one of Japan's worst pollution disasters. Minamata disease is a tale of shocking criminal negligence on the part of the company directly responsible, complacent govern-ment bureaucracy, indifferent politicians and corrupt scientific experts who lied about its causes when it first appeared. The tragedy awoke Japan and the world to the hu-man and environmental costs of rampant industrial-ization in the postwar years. But it is also a story of determined victims and their supporters, ordinary men and women who battled for decades against Chisso Corp. and the central govern-ment, finally forcing both to take responsibility. May 1, 1956, not the start On May 1, 1956 in Minamata, Kumamoto Prefec-ture, four people suffering an unusual disease showed up at the hospital run by Chisso Corp., which at the time employed nearly 60 percent of the town's work-force. The hospital's head, Hajime Hosokawa, had seen similar symptoms in a patient who died in 1954. But as early as 1946, locals were speaking of the "dancing cat" disease, a malady that caused cats to convulse wildly before they died. Fearing an epidemic, Hosokawa notified local health officials of this strange new illness. It was the first official announcement of what would become known as Minamata disease. And a horrible disease it was. A Kumamoto Uni-versity report from summer 1956 described just how quick it could kill. In one case documented by researchers, a 28-year-old woman began complaining of numbness of fingers and impaired hearing and speech. Three days later, the numbness spread to her mouth. One week later, she was barely able to walk. Three weeks after her initial complaints, she was hospitalized with muscle spasms and was occasionally howling. Six weeks later, she was semicomatose and could no longer feed herself -- her face and mouth had become paralyzed. Her body temperature rose, her pupils dilated and she howled nonstop. Seven weeks after her initial complaint of numb-ness, she was dead. In January 1957, Kumamoto University researchers announced that effluent containing heavy metals be-ing dumped by Chisso Corp. into Minamata Bay was responsible for the disease. Two years later, they issued a more specific conclusion citing organic mercury in the effluent. Chisso Corp.'s Minamata plant used organic mer-cury for manufacturing acetaldehyde and vinyl chlo-ride. Between 1932, when the plant went into opera-tion, and 1968, when it switched to a different manu-facturing process, Chisso dumped an estimated 27 tons of mercury-tainted waste into Minamata Bay. There, it entered the food chain, contaminating shellfish at first, then larger fish, and, finally, humans. Chisso's initial reaction to Kumamoto University's conclusions was to reject them. The company's allies in academia and industry rallied to its defense. The head of an industrial organization claimed, falsely, that the disease was caused by explosives dumped into Minamata Bay after the war. Between 1956 and 1959, at least 30 people died of mercury poisoning and more became sick. After local fisherman staged a protest to demand that Chisso stop dumping mercury into the bay and clashed violently with police, a settlement was reached in December 1959 whereby Chisso offered to pay condolence money without admitting responsibility. The victims, facing a hostile rural community where they are shunned for having Minamata disease and for challenging the town's main employer, ac-cepted. They received 30,000 yen for a child with the dis-ease, 100,000 yen for an adult and 300,000 yen in the event of death. They also had to agree to never press Chisso for further redress. Chisso kept on; Niigata hit Six months after the agreement, Chisso resumed dumping mercury-tainted effluent into the bay. The matter appeared to have been swept under the rug until 1965, when Niigata Prefecture suffered an outbreak of the disease. The Niigata victims immediately filed a lawsuit a-gainst Showa Denko, the chemical company respon-sible, and emboldened the Minamata victims to take Chisso to court. Twenty families in Kumamoto, representing 112 patients, filed suit against Chisso in the Kumamoto District Court. In 1973, the Kumamoto plaintiffs were victorious, and signed a compensation agreement with the polluter that gave each patient between 16 million yen and 18 million yen, plus medical expenses. Six years later, Chisso's former president and Mina-mata factory manager were found guilty of negligent homicide and, after the Supreme Court rejected their appeal in 1988, were given suspended two-year sen-tences. The 1973 decision did not end the issue because it did not address the question of what would happen to those who were suffering Minamata disease but were not officially recognized as victims and thus ineligible for compensation. In 1977, the old Environment Agency, fearing a deluge of official victims under its old system, tough-ened the requirements for Minamata disease certifica-tion despite criticism from the scientific and medical communities that its criteria were not based on sound science. The decision triggered another round of suits by unrecognized victims. In December 1995, under a plan brokered by So-cialist Prime Minister Tomiichi Murayama, noncerti-fied victims each got 2.6 million yen. To be eligible, applicants had to show loss of feeling in all four limbs and agree to withdraw their lawsuits. In addition, five separate groups of victims received 4.94 billion yen, and, although the government didn't formally admit responsibility, Murayama apologized for its role. About 10,000 people eventually received compen-sation, but a small group of plaintiffs in the Kansai re-gion fought on in the courts to hold the central gov-ernment responsible. In October 2004, the Supreme Court ruled the central and Kumamoto Prefectural governments were jointly responsible for the spread of Minamata disease. "What the Supreme Court ruling did was to effec-tively nullify the Environment Agency's stringent 1977 guidelines for certification, resulting in more people being eligible to be certified as victims," said Toshiyuki Kawakami, leader of the Kansai plaintiffs. "But so far, the Environment Ministry has done noth-ing to relax its criteria." As of March, nearly 19,000 people, including Kawakami, had applied for recognition. Over the past half-century, more than 900 people with Minamata Disease have died, and the government has only rec-ognized about 3,000 people. Unknown thousands continue to suffer, and symp-toms of the disease have appeared in the children and grandchildren of people who ate Minamata Bay fish long ago. "The dead cannot be brought back. On May 1, when the government holds a memorial service to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the first official report of Minamata disease, government officials will remember the dead. But they need to remember those who are alive and suffering," Sakamoto said. "All pollution, be it Minamata disease or poisoning from asbestos, is the same. It effects families and chil-dren, and I don't want any other family, or children, to go through what the Minamata disease victims have gone through," she said. |
|
(回目錄) |
含汞疫苗危害印度兒童健康 | |
1980年代,美國國內興起了一種「含汞疫苗會導致自閉症」的說法,當時研究發現,實驗鼠注射含汞疫苗後出現自閉傾向表現,於是以醫界為中心,恐慌開始慢慢擴散,許多地區及國家都開始關心兒童注射疫苗的議題:美國愛荷華州及加州都通過了支持無汞疫苗的法案、丹麥國會在1992年禁止使用含有重金屬的疫苗、而英國最近也通過了類似的法案。然而,發展中的國家卻別無選擇──含汞疫苗雖有危害健康之虞,卻便宜多了。 居於這個含汞疫苗問題核心的就是「水銀防腐劑」(thimerosal)──這種防腐劑的組成有一半都是汞,為開瓶後可多次使用、需要較長保存期限的多劑量(multi-dose)瓶裝疫苗之重要成分。由於水銀防腐劑比單次劑量(sin-gle-dose)瓶裝疫苗便宜10倍多,大多藥廠多愛用此劑壓低藥價,以便向印度等發展中國家兜售,甚至還有藥商提供自己國內無汞疫苗,卻向發展中國家售出含重金屬的藥劑。2000年,全球流動中的疫苗中就有8成都含有水銀防腐劑,無怪乎世界衛生組織(WHO)及聯合國兒童基金會(UNICEF)等國際團體要跳出來為疫苗防腐劑量把關。 然而,疫苗問題卻持續在其他地區延燒。雖然專家表示疫苗中使用的乙基水銀和引起水俁病的甲基水銀並不相同,藥商也舉出研究結果為藥品安全性背書,辯論仍然越演越烈。 印度免疫接種計劃規定,疫苗中每5毫升裡只能含有25μg的水銀防腐劑,相當於12.5μg的水銀。而依照兒科醫學院擬定的計畫,6週大的嬰兒必須接種三合一及B型肝炎疫苗,兩者已含有25μg的水銀;再加上有些私人診所為嬰兒注射的B型嗜血流行性桿菌疫苗,嬰兒共接觸37.5μg的重金屬。根據美國環保署數據指出,人體每天能承受體重每公斤0.1 μg的金屬──意即6週大約重7公斤的嬰兒一天最多只能接受0.7μg的水銀量──如此一來,嬰兒在疫苗接種日接觸的水銀量已經高出安全值太多了。至於營養不良或體重過輕的孩子,水銀劑量多寡甚至攸關生死,因為他們無法分泌足夠膽汁以解毒。 水銀防腐劑在1930年代由美國藥商巨頭El Lilly研發,雖然初期人體實驗時已引起22位受驗者腦膜炎致死,該公司多年來仍靠操弄實驗結果以推行所謂「安全」的防腐劑;而提出有利報告的美國醫藥局(IOM),亦不乏領取藥商研究補助金的科學家,使得真相模糊難明。El Lilly並與多家藥廠合作迫使美國在國土安全法案中加入新條款,讓藥商從此不再受民事法庭束縛,只能在醫藥法規上被諮詢控訴(從此他們在醫藥糾紛案件中省下過去6倍多的支出);911後對炭疽熱等生化恐怖攻擊心存恐懼的美國政府,自然沒有不點頭的理由。 縱觀歷史,美國的自閉症案件一值持續攀升中:1980年代,每一萬個兒童中只有一位自閉兒,到了90年代每500人中就有一位,目前平均166個新生兒中就會出現一個自閉寶寶;而這和1988年至1992年間疫苗水銀劑量的增加一致;另外,禁止含汞疫苗的丹麥地區自閉兒比率僅1萬3千分之1,在在都是自閉兒案例隨含汞疫苗消長變動的證據。同時,哥倫比亞大學梅爾曼公共衛生學院(Mailman School of Public Health)、肯塔基大學(University of Kentucky)及貝勒醫學院(Baylor Col-lege of Medicine)都舉出,水銀防腐劑對腦神經元具有破壞力,不只會造成自閉症,智力、語言、人格缺陷都和它有關,甚至極少的劑量都和老年癡呆症脫不了干係,看來水銀防腐劑這下可是罪證確鑿。 而這些結果終於為疫苗問題帶來了正面影響,自美國立法規定水銀劑量後,6週大嬰兒接種的疫苗含汞量已從187.5μg降到3μg,這或許對印度等發展中國家有所幫助──正如德里一位資深小兒科醫師一語道破印度的困境:「含汞疫苗或許會使家長卻步不敢放心讓孩子接種」,發展中國家也開始察覺到疫苗水銀量問題的嚴重性;然而,它們卻無力支付較昂貴的無汞疫苗費用,甚至連替代水銀防腐劑的新成份價格都更高昂,替換和去除疫苗中的水銀在經濟層面上都是不可能的任務。 不過,事情卻不是單單立法就可以解決這麼簡單,即使政府或藥商有對此議題的自覺,無汞疫苗的製造卻還牽涉授權問題。印度山莎生物科技公司(Shantha Biotechnics)就表示:「我們已經成功研發不含水銀防腐劑的疫苗,這並不困難,但麻煩的是WHO不允許我們將新疫苗提供給UNICEF。」 除了金錢問題之外,還有更嚴重的問題:不少科學家相信,水銀防腐劑並不如那些引起民眾恐慌的報告一樣具有破壞力,因此沒有替換成要價較高無汞疫苗的必要;印度的藥方成分指導書In-dian Pharmacoepia甚至還明寫著連用過即丟的單次劑量疫苗都必須添加防腐劑;另外,在藥瓶上標示詳細成分也不是印度國內藥商的職責,部分公司如伯哈拉特生技(Bharat Biotech)等就不在藥物成分單上標示水銀防腐劑。比起美國,印度父母在為孩子選擇藥物疫苗這點上完全居於弱勢。 目前辯論已白熱化,而印度健康與家庭福利聯合總長並非對疫苗議題不聞不問,他已下命旗下的免疫接種技術咨詢組織召開會議,商討適當的新疫苗措施。然而,那場會議卻遲遲無法召開,急壞了許多醫界專家,紛紛呼籲政府盡快找到低價有效的防腐劑替代品。事實是,印度使用的疫苗含汞量的確過量;而換個角度想,自閉患者需要的終生照顧花費也不可小覷,現在該是印度政府看清事實、採取行動的時候了。 (資料來源:http://www.downtoearth.org.in/full6.asp?foldername=20060415&fileame=anal&sid=1&page=1&sec_id=7) |
|
(回目錄) |
吾思吾師 找回教師熱情與尊嚴徵文比賽 | |
送舊迎新囉!迎接新的一年,讓我們滿懷感恩的心,感謝過去教導我們、使我們智慧增長的師長,用一千字以內的短文與大家分享溫馨感人的真人實事。全教會贊助入選者稿酬每字2元,來稿請以電子檔寄young@lihpao.co-m﹐附真實姓名﹑身份字號﹑銀行帳號。本報有權刪修來稿﹐來稿者視為同意本報集結出書時﹐不另支稿酬。 |
|
(回目錄) |
參觀立報: |
http://www.lihpao.com |
寫信給小編e-mail: |
fiveguys@ms19.hinet.net |
立報地址: |
台北縣新店市光復路43號 |
欲詳完整內容請訂閱立報 電話:02-86676655 傳真:02-82191213 訂報:02-86676655轉214 地址:台北縣新店市復興路43號1樓 每週一至週六出報,每份10元 |