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教育專題 ◎ 2007-02-23
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教 育 專 題 深 入 報 導《2007-02-23》

本期內容
  ◎國際專題:Villagers, elephants fight for right to life in India印度人象大戰 
  ◎Are Niger's giraffes a fading spot on the horizon? 
  ◎In Peru, a move to get farmers to trade in fish rather than coca 



國際專題:Villagers, elephants fight for right to life in India印度人象大戰
  策劃、編譯■成怡夏、侯美如
當一群野象闖進印度西孟加拉邦一間小學校廚房大啖稻米和扁豆時,7歲的貝拉和其他同學的午餐和課程都不得不被取消。象群離去後徒留慘不忍睹的蹂躪痕跡,校方只好宣布停課。

這樣的故事在印度並不稀奇,隨著人口逐漸成長,印度早已掀起人象之間的土地爭奪戰,鄉間政府與野生動物活動者也為此頭痛不已。「這事攸關人類與動物的存亡,」西孟加拉邦喜馬拉雅自然與冒險基金會會長包斯指出:「象具有遷徙習性,往來森林之間,但由於近幾十年人類村莊蓬勃成長,牠們的遷徙路徑常被人類佔據。」

2002年的調查顯示,印度國家公園及森林僅存2萬6千4百頭象,2005年大象數目普查更指出印度象群驟減,全國只剩2萬1千3百頭。去年底印度環境部進行的森林調查證實,自1997年以來,印度11處主要野生動物保護區的森林面積確實以固定速度逐年減少。另外報告還指出,目前印度國土僅20%為森林覆蓋,其中僅有12萬平方公里大小的範圍──不到國土4%──適合象群居住。

政府於是訂下森林重建計劃,希望在2012年以前讓33%面積都恢復成茂密林地,但在野生動物保育份子眼裡看來,這簡直是天大的笑話。「大規模的棲息地流失已使得象群離散,牠們的群聚規模也越來越小,結果導致繁衍力不如預期。」西孟加拉邦野生動物基金會(WWF)秘書長班能吉表示。

現在印度多數的大象生活在14邦各自的保護區裡,但即使是受規劃而安置在那裡的象群也難逃人類活動及公共建設入侵的命運。根據新德里壓力集團(致力影響國家政策,本身卻不參與政治的組織)「科學與環境中心」預測,2006年會有3百萬人口進駐印度野生動物保護區、禁獵區、公園及預留地。印度佔全世界2.4%面積,上頭卻住著幾乎16%的全球人口,1990年代間印度人口成長率並達到20%,意味著目前正有10億人擠在印度國土上,實際與野生動物爭地的人數,或許要比研究中心預估的要來得多。

幾百年來印度象一直因為珍貴象牙成為狩獵者的目標,現在牠們的週遭又出現另一種殺手:高速火車和保護人類村落與作物的高壓電網。往來於西孟加拉邦西里古里鎮與不丹國界的長程電車於2003年開駛,時速160公里,光是這條鐵路去年就輾死5隻大象。根據森林部門最高長官帕泰爾表示,這條鐵軌正好截斷一條象群遷徙的走道,並直直穿過4個動物禁獵區。

動物保育當局表示,卡納塔克、喀拉拉及坦米爾納德等南方各邦對大象較親善,但即使是那些區域象頭數也有減少的趨向,2002年來已從1萬2,750稍稍頭下滑到1萬2,036頭。不過,民間保育份子卻擔心印度象實際上的減少速度遠比官方預估的快,因為印度政府對於這類估計總是過於樂觀,去年保育類老虎的數量就明顯少於官方數據。

保育人士表示,雖然在1990年國際象牙貿易禁令頒布後盜獵情形的確有減少,但黑市買賣仍然在印度大行其道。一般相信,惡名昭彰的印度土匪維拉潘就屠殺過上百隻大象,因為他在叢林裡的「皇宮」正是由走私的象牙和檀木打造而成。維拉潘在2004年被警方射殺。

而為了挽救象群的命運,印度政府也想出一些奇招。在西孟加拉邦裡頭東角的老虎保育區布煞,人們在農地旁圍起柵欄,上頭塗著由辣椒粉和機油混合的臭膠,好防止野生動物誤入禁地。

然而,真正能保護象群的還是只有更廣大的森林和動物保護區。唯有當那些土地都得到妥善維護,人象土地爭奪戰才能劃下句點。「雖然政府有在盡力,但他們卻從沒認真思考過大象保育的議題」,WWF的班能吉認為:「看起來不消10到15年,這塊亞洲最大的大象棲息地將消失殆盡。」現實正如他描述的:「印度的人口爆炸和土地法實施不力已使得象群孤立無援。」

(路透社)

When a herd of wild elephants rampaged through a school kitchen in India's West Bengal state, gobbling up rice and lentils, seven-year-old Suman Bera and classmates were left without lunch -- and lessons.

The animals left a trail of destruction in their search for food, forcing officials to cancel classes.

As forest habitat is felled by a growing population in need of more land for homes and farms, India's remaining elephant population and its people are coming into conflict, causing a jumbo-sized headache for rural officials and wildlife activists.

"It's a matter of survival for both man and animal," said Animesh Bose, head of the West Bengal-based Himalayan Nature and Adventure Foundation.

"Elephants are migratory animals and move from one forest to the other through corridors which have often been lost due to villages that have sprung up in the last few decades," Bose said.

Home to 50,000 wild Asian elephants a century ago, just 26,400 elephants were roaming India's national parks and forests in 2002. Worse, the first comprehensive elephant census published in 2005 showed a steep drop in numbers to just 21,300 elephants.

Late last year, the environment ministry's Forest Survey of India reported a steady depletion of forest land in 11 major wildlife reserves since 1997.

According to the survey, only 20 percent of India's landmass is forested and just 120,000 square kilometers (46,340 square miles) -- less than four percent of the country -- of that is suitable for elephants.

Officials have set a target of 33 percent forest cover by 2012 through extensive reforestation programs, but wildlife activists have derided the plans as almost impossible to achieve.

"With rampant habitat destruction the herd is now fragmented and groups are becoming smaller in size ... as a result they are not breeding as we hoped they would, which is a major worry," said Shakti Ranjan Banerjee, West Bengal secretary of WWF-India.

Most of India's elephants live in protected reserves in fourteen states from north to south but even these are under pressure from human encroachment and infrastructure development.

The Center for Science and Environment, a New Delhi-based pressure group, says in 2006 three million people were living in protected areas, including sanctuaries, parks and reserves.

India has 2.4 percent of the world's land but supports nearly 16 percent of the earth's people. Its population grew by over 20 percent between 1991 and 2001, and now tops one billion people.

For centuries, elephants have been chased and shot by hunters and poachers in search of trophies or precious ivory, but of late more prosaic deaths have awaited them: mowed down by speeding trains or electrocuted by fences put round villages and crops.

Trains traveling along a single 160 km (100 mile)-long track stretching from the West Bengal town of Siliguri to the border with Bhutan, built in 2003, killed five elephants last year.

"The railway track has bisected the entire elephant corridor and cuts through four sanctuaries," said Sheelwant Patel, a top forest department official.

Wildlife officials say elephants are faring a little better in southern states like Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu. But even here numbers have fallen -- from 12,750 in 2002 to 12,036 three years later.

Activists fear the decline may be more rapid than official figures suggest, just as authorities were shown last year to have routinely overestimated India's population of threatened tigers.

"Despite government efforts, elephant conservation has not been given serious thought," said the WWF's Banerjee. "The largest habitat of the Asian elephant in India will vanish in another 10-15 years it seems."

Wildlife activists have complained the fragile ecosystem will be under even greater pressure following recent legislation giving land ownership and resource use rights to millions of poor forest dwellers.

But officials are optimistic they can boost the elephant population, despite skepticism by conservationists.

"We don't expect results overnight," said Manindra Biswas, a senior forest department official in West Bengal. "But the positive effects will surely be felt in the near future as we are trying to mitigate animal-man conflict and habitat loss."

Poaching has gone down since the international ban on ivory trade in 1990, but the secret trade still flourishes in southern and northern India, wildlife activists say.

An infamous forest bandit, Koose Muniswamy Veerappan, shot dead by police in 2004, was widely thought to have slaughtered hundreds of elephants in southern India as he amassed a fortune from a jungle empire built on ivory and sandalwood smuggling.

To turn around the elephants' fortunes, officials have come up with some novel ideas.

In the eastern tiger reserve of Buxa in West Bengal, special rope fences coated with a stinking paste of chili powder and motor oil are being used to ward elephants off land used for cultivation by villagers.

But a lasting victory will only be won once reserves and other forest areas get real protection from man's activities.

"India's population explosion and the unwillingness of people on the ground to implement the laws have left elephants high and dry," Banerjee of WWF said.

REUTERS
(回目錄)



Are Niger's giraffes a fading spot on the horizon?
   
7月的傍晚,尼日首都尼阿美東方一百公里的道路上一片幽暗,超載的小貨車上滿是人和貨物,正沿著一條村莊外的公路搖搖晃晃地前進。雖然駕駛猛踩煞車,但還是太遲了:他撞上路邊一隻趁著雨季、正在品嚐美味植物的年輕公長頸鹿,這已經是近兩個月來第2樁類似的街頭凶殺案。

據基督教科學箴言報報導,尼日的長頸鹿是唯一還留在西非,也是唯一仍活在自然棲地(而非自然保護區)的長頸鹿,近幾年卻瀕臨絕種。雖然沒有主要掠食者,健康狀況也良好,卻因為人類活動備受威脅。從盜獵、道路車禍到自然棲地被佔領,都是長頸鹿大量減少的主因。

尤其,在當地大多數農人依賴惡劣的乾燥大地維生之際,長頸鹿和人類無法和諧共存。研究西非長頸鹿的法國生態學家珍──派屈克‧蘇洛德發現,村民屠宰長頸鹿並將肉分食的速度非常快,事發幾小時後牠趕到現場,路邊僅剩下血跡,什麼也沒留下。

在19世紀末期,長頸鹿當時還在塞內加爾、甘比亞、茅利塔尼亞、馬利和奈及利亞境內漫遊,數量卻在近代急速下降。1970年代初期,尼日還有上百隻長頸鹿漫遊,到了1996年,長頸鹿數量已不超過50隻。由於國際環境保護團體和歐洲的外來者對長頸鹿的珍惜,因此在政府組織的支持下,他們開始禁止曾經非常猖獗的盜獵行動,取而代之的是種種保護手段。

但不能忽視的是,首都尼阿美以外的村民生活變得非常困苦。「人們都在挨餓」,在當地提倡生態旅行和發展的非政府組織「拯救尼日長頸鹿協會」(Association to Save the Giraffes of Niger,簡稱ASGN)的營運經理歐莫‧多福說:「村裡沒有多少東西可以吃,因此當一隻長頸鹿被撞到,大家一定毫不浪費地吃得一點也不剩。」

村民一度抱怨長頸鹿會偷吃他們的穀物,特別是豆子和芒果,更會破壞田地。這些抱怨到後來變成一種謠言,一般人開始相信長頸鹿改變了飲食習慣,專吃該地區的主要作物小米和高粱。「這純粹是一派胡言。」研究尼日長頸鹿12年之久的法國動物行為專家伊莉莎白‧西歐佛羅說:「長頸鹿從來沒有吃過小米和高粱,永遠都不會……如果有什麼損害,作物受到損害往往是最小的。」

不過在ASGN和外國愛好長頸鹿的人士幫助下,村民慢慢開始了解,以長遠的經濟來考量的話,與其殺掉長頸鹿取肉維生,不如試著與長頸鹿共存。ASGN在當地發起了「覺醒運動」,包括鑿井和組織小額借貸,鼓勵村民改變糧食生產方式,並珍惜長頸鹿以發展觀光。

(基督教科學箴言報)
(回目錄)



In Peru, a move to get farmers to trade in fish rather than coca
   
提奧非羅‧泰普立馬很清楚潛藏在秘魯亞馬遜叢林的危險:俗稱食人魚的水虎魚、淡水魟,以及巨大的派奇魚(paiche)。在秘魯北部進行魚類研究的泰普立馬最近在捕捉一條派奇魚時,才見識到派奇魚有多狡猾。「牠飛向我,然後重擊我的前額,害我痛得要死,幸好只是一條小魚。假如那是一條大魚,我可能已經瞎了。」他說。

派奇魚的正式名稱為巨骨舌魚(Arapaima gigas),又稱象魚或彼拉魯克(pirarucu),是一種特別古老的淡水魚種,身上有甲殼般的鱗片和扁平的頭。由於水中含氧量低,派奇魚常要浮上水面呼吸,容易成為漁夫的目標。不過為了滿足大眾對於這種美味、層狀、無刺的魚肉之需要,過度捕撈使派奇魚數量銳減。

「如果不做一些改變,這種魚在10到15年間就會絕種。」在泰普立馬工作的祕魯亞馬遜研究院工作的佛斯脫‧西諾斯裘沙說。據基督教科學箴言報報導西諾斯裘沙的研究中心和秘魯東部的烏卡雅省政府一起合作,致力於養殖魚業計劃,重新讓湖裡派奇魚的數量增加。

他們在普凱爾帕上游的湖面設置浮籠,當作派奇魚苗的住處。計畫中,每個籠子希望能養育8千隻派奇魚苗,目標是一年內讓魚可以達到10公斤。當局相信,這樣一來,每年就有足夠的派奇魚魚獲,以滿足當地的市場需求,並開始外銷。

烏卡雅省長艾德文‧梵斯奎茲說,政府的行銷研究顯示,派奇魚魚排可以以一磅20美元(一公斤新台幣3百元)的價格外銷到歐洲和美國市場,「這對一個沒有多少選擇的社群來說是一個難得的經濟機會。」

然而,目前要讓派奇魚端上全球的晚餐餐桌還有很多障礙。西諾斯裘沙的研究中心仍在努力尋找順利繁殖這種魚的方法。去年,亞馬遜一場嚴重的旱災造成魚苗大量死亡,影響了派奇魚的繁殖工作。「派奇魚受到氣候的影響非常大,我們每天都還在持續對這種魚的認識與學習。」西諾斯裘沙說。

研究員也致力於找出恰當的魚飼料來餵食狼吞虎嚥的派奇魚。西諾斯裘沙說,除了吞噬其他魚類,還有人見過野生的派奇魚躍出水面,捕捉低垂水邊樹枝上的小鳥。以玉米為主的飼料目前是養殖派奇魚的主要飼料,不過目前這都是在研究中心以手工製成的。若想要達到外銷魚肉的目標,大量生產勢在必行。

此外,將這些魚運出亞馬遜叢林也有後勤問題待解決。這種魚必須在8小時內由船送往普凱爾帕,然後用卡車運送到5百公里外的首都利馬。省政府也考慮過以冷凍貨櫃卡車將魚冷凍送往利馬,然後再用船運往歐洲和美國。

但即使他們能順利將派奇魚從叢林送到歐美的晚餐餐盤上,環保團體也不會樂見這種瀕臨絕種的魚類出現在菜單中。不過,根據聯合國2006年發布的報告,問題將會因為漁田養殖計畫獲得紓解。根據生物交易促進計劃(BioTrade Facilitation Programme),在美國和歐洲的消費者對於環境友善的食物的需求愈來愈大之際,養殖派奇魚不失為一種好的選擇。

梵斯奎茲很有信心,一旦他的派奇魚計畫在未來一年半到兩年間火力全開,這些問題都會迎刃而解。他表示,這個計畫不只復育了秘魯的派奇魚,越過巴西邊境的魚苗也會讓巴西的派奇魚數量增加,終有一天會將使派奇魚從瀕臨絕種動物名單脫身。

美國研究派奇魚的淡水魚生物學家賽伯‧荷根也看好梵斯奎茲的復育計畫會成功。「假如這些計畫成功了,派奇魚不但可以維持一定的漁獲量,還可以受到保護不至於絕種。」

(http://www.csmonitor.com/2007/0104/p05s01-woam.html)
(回目錄)



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