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教育專題 ◎ 2008-05-22
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教 育 專 題 深 入 報 導《2008-05-22》

本期內容
  ◎國際專題:災難的防治與善後 
  ◎因應各種威脅 美國建立未來急診室 
  ◎培養大學人材 有助預防天災 



國際專題:災難的防治與善後
  策劃、編譯■陳銳嬪、陳玫伶
先有緬甸風災,後有四川強震,

讓人類發現自己在發怒的大自然面前有多麼渺小。

天災無法避免,卻可以透過事先的預防與妥善快速的善後,把傷害減到最低。

在感嘆哀悼的同時,建立一套因應天災人禍的軟硬體設備,

是台灣也是世界各國的當務之急。
(回目錄)



因應各種威脅 美國建立未來急診室
  (路透社)
華盛頓醫學中心的急診室,就像美國其他醫院的一樣擁擠,任何時刻都有病人吊著點滴躺在走廊的病床上,其他人則花上數小時等待醫生。

但是在老舊擁擠的急診室旁,是一個明亮安靜的空間。急診部門主席馬克‧史密斯期望,這個由220億美元聯邦撥款支撐、6百個專家提供意見的急診室,可以成為未來急診室的首個草圖。

這個急診室主要設計來收留因為天災、生物攻擊、流行性傳染病而突然湧現的人潮,與此同時,它也用來防止現有疾病在醫院造成感染。

史密斯在訪問中透露:「我們的目標是建立一個實地示範中心,可以成為全國的榜樣。」

「恐怖主義的威脅是真的,有可能的目標是紐約市和華盛頓。」

2001年9月11日,當一架被劫持的飛機撞入美國五角大廈時,所有受傷的人都被送到華盛頓醫學中心救治,該中心是這個地區最大的外傷中心,也是該區域的特別燙傷中心。

「我們覺得我們擁有非常特別的責任。我們是國家安全的資產。」史密斯帶記者參觀還沒有完工的醫院時如是說。這個醫院隸屬非營利組織MedStar Health。

這個新設備必須有例常的急診室,但是病人爆多時,它也可以迅速地擴充3到5倍。它必須可以抵抗室內、甚至來自外面的細菌。

增加手術室容積

根據美國疾病控制與預防中心(CDC)的數據顯示,2005年全美共有超過1億1千5百萬人次進過急診室,比前10年多了20%。

但是在1995年和2005年之間,急診室的數目卻下跌了9%,從4,176間變成3,795間。

數個報告顯示,美國醫院內的急診室面積並沒有增加,他們預測,流行性感冒季節,只要禽流感發生,急診室就會塞爆。

新的急診室有10個病床,2個移動的醫護中心,可以滿足即時的需求。當病患人數激增時,它也可以有固定的功能。

不像大多數急診室的手術室都是一個小房間,這裡的手術室寬敞通風。每間手術室有3張病床,但是如果在白天的話,病人在裡面想必會感到寂寞。

可移動的玻璃門可以把病床轉移成封閉的空間,防止病菌蔓延,其他裝備還有雙氧水消毒系統。

門可以向外旋轉,讓手術室可以多放兩張病床,同時容納5床病人。當然,這不可能是封閉病床。

這表示,這個急診部門可以容納50個病人,而且沒有一個人必須是在走廊上的。

在這房間的空氣透過紫外線光來過濾與消毒。一般有30個病床的急診室會有2個負壓室,史密斯說,這個醫院將會有10個負壓室。

「我們將使用對抗天花與瘟疫的手法來對付流行性感冒。」史密斯說。

空氣從上面往下流,穿過病床後直接從角落流出去,這主要是為了保護醫護人員以免受到細菌的攻擊。

一般醫院每個小時會進行8到10次的換氣行動,這裡是每小時15到18次,也可在負壓情況增加到25次,殺死在空氣中傳播的病毒與細菌。

這樣的換氣次數可以用來防治高度傳染的呼吸道疾病,例如SARS。2003年突然在中國爆發的SARS,使全球8千人受感染,8百人喪生。

許多傷亡者為醫院員工。

第二道前線

在同一時段,第二個實驗還在進行中。

計畫經理艾拉‧富蘭克林指出:「醫院的傳染控制並沒有改善。」她也是一名擁有公共健康文憑的註冊護士。

CDC的報告顯示,葡萄狀球菌與其他在醫院茁壯成長的病菌,已經使每年9萬人因此死亡,損失45億。

富蘭克林把新的急診室轉變成實驗中心,使用新的設計、流程與材料,看是否能把它變得更好。

她說:「我們有在其他企業的知識,但沒有應用在醫療保健上。我們知道,在食品工業,人造面板的地面使微生物無法生長。」

她把手放在牆壁上,腰際高度的青綠色線條是人造面板,她說:「這個高度是人們用來支撐自己的位置。」

每次人們的手撐在牆上,細菌就會跟著人手上的油脂而移動。它們可以隱藏在微小的隙縫中,成了難以消除的生物膜。

富蘭克林說:「我告訴我的員工,你必須清理這個線條,因為人們會把手放在這裡。」

房間內控制台的面板也將會以抗菌薄膜覆蓋。

富蘭克林指出,最理想的狀況時每間房間可以每天清洗,但是經年的經驗告訴她,在忙碌的急診室,這是不可能的事。

吸音的地磚將會吸收雜音,這是試驗的一部分,想看看安靜的環境是否可以讓被雜音干擾的員工少犯一些錯誤。

洗手台就設在門的旁邊,並設有感應器,當有人經過時它就會亮起來,提醒職員無論進入或離開病房都要洗手。

富蘭克林說:「我們在軍隊、航空站裡看到,你可以設計一個引導人們正確操作的空間。」

電腦鍵盤也面對特別的挑戰。「就像每個人的鍵盤,它容易受污染。」原本設計可以浸泡在漂白水裡的鍵盤效果不佳,所以富蘭克林改用抗菌的收縮膠膜來包裹它。

Like every U.S. hospital emergency room, the one at Washington Hospital Center is overwhelmed -- on any day patients lie on gurneys in the corridor, hooked up to monitors. Others wait for hours to see a doctor.

But next door to the old and crowded emergency department is a bright oasis of calm. Backed by a $2.2 million federal grant and drawing on 600 different ideas from a task force of experts, the hospital is putting in what emergency department chairman Dr. Mark Smith hopes will be a first draft of the emergency department of the future.

It is designed to handle a sudden influx of mass casualties from a natural disaster, biological attack or a pandemic, and at the same time prevent the ongoing disaster of hospital-acquired infections.

"Our goal is to build a center as a demonstration facility -- a model test bed for the rest of the country," Smith said in an interview.

"The risk of terrorism is real. The likely targets are going to be New York City and Washington."

On Sept. 11, 2001, all the people injured in the Pentagon when a hijacked jet crashed through its walls were treated at Washington Hospital Center, the largest trauma center in the area and the region's specialty burn center.

"We recognized that we have a very, very special responsibility. We are a national security asset," Smith said as he gave a tour of the unfinished section. The hospital is owned by nonprofit MedStar Health.

The new facility must work as an emergency room day-to-day, but must quickly accommodate three to five times the usual number of patients. It must resist an invasion of germs from inside, and withstand attacks from the outside.

SURGE CAPACITY

More than 115 million people visited emergency rooms across the United States in 2005, according to the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention -- a 20 percent increase over the previous decade.

But between 1995 and 2005, the number of ERs dropped by 9 percent, from 3,795 from 4,176.

Several reports show there is no surge capacity in U.S. hospitals, and predict that even a bad flu season, let alone a pandemic of avian influenza, will completely overwhelm them.

With 10 new patient bays and two movable nurses' stations, this new ER will fill an immediate need, as well as having a built-in capacity to deal with surges.

Unlike like most emergency department treatment bays, which are usually barely larger than a closet, these are spacious and airy. Each has three beds, but in daily use a patient will ideally be alone.

Sliding glass doors can convert each bay into a sealed isolation unit, with negative pressure systems to keep infections from spreading, and outfitted with a hydrogen peroxide gas disinfection system.

The doors can rotate out to make the bay fit two more beds, accommodating five patients at once, although not under sealed conditions.

That means this section of the emergency department can accommodate 50 patients without anyone being in a corridor.

The air pumped into and out of the rooms can be filtered and sterilized using ultraviolet light. A typical 30-bed emergency department has two negative pressure rooms. This one will have 10, Smith said.

"What is going to work for smallpox and plague is going to work for pandemic flu," Smith said.

The air comes in from above, flows across the patient beds and is sucked out near ground level in a corner, to protect staff by swooping germs away from them.

A typical hospital room has eight to 10 air changes an hour. These fill with fresh air 15 to 18 times an hour and can be ramped up to 25 exchanges an hour under negative pressure conditions to foil airborne viruses and bacteria.

Such measures can be used when patients are being treated for highly infectious respiratory diseases such as severe acute respiratory syndrome, which infected 8,000 people globally and killed 800 after it emerged suddenly in China in 2003.

Many casualties were hospital workers.

SECOND FRONT

But a second experiment is under way at the same time.

"Hospitals haven't improved infection control," says Ella Franklin, a registered nurse with a degree in public health who is the project manager.

The CDC reports that staphylococcus and other bugs that thrive in hospitals kill 90,000 people a year at a cost of $4.5 billion.

Franklin has turned the new ER into an experiment testing design, procedures and new materials to see if they can do better.

"We have the knowledge in other industries and we haven't done it in healthcare," she said. "We know from the food industry that a non-porous Corian surface doesn't support microbial growth."

She runs her hand along a blue-green strip of Corian, made by DuPont Co (DD.N: Quote, Profile, Research), just above waist level on the wall. "This is where people will put their hands to steady themselves," she said.

Every time a hand touches a wall, germs can transfer and the oils on a human hand help them stick. They can burrow into tiny crevices and create biofilms -- living colonies than are maddeningly hard to eradicate.

"I can tell my environmental services staff 'make sure you get this strip' because we know that is where people put their hands," Franklin said.

Control panels on the monitors in the rooms will be coated with a clear plastic antimicrobial film.

Franklin hopes each room will be cleaned at least daily and optimally between patients, but years of experience have told her this often does not happen in a busy emergency department.

Silver ion technology from Massachusetts-based Agion Technologies Inc. has been used to make door frames and handles.

"I will be doing microbial swabbing to make sure this works," Franklin said.

Acoustic tiles will absorb noise as part of an experiment to see if quieter working conditions help prevent the distractions that cause harried workers to make mistakes.

Sinks are right by the door and will be fitted with sensors, so that they are lit up as someone walks by to entice staffers to wash their hands as they enter and exit.

"We have seen in the military, we have seen in aerospace engineering, that you can design a space to lead a person to do the right thing," Franklin said.

Computer keyboards pose a special challenge. "Like everyone else's keyboards, they are contaminated." A keyboard designed to survive dunking in a bleach solution did not work well, so Franklin is trying an antimicrobial shrink-wrap cover instead.

REUTERS
(回目錄)



培養大學人材 有助預防天災
  參考來源:衛報
熱帶氣旋和暴風雨才洗劫過緬甸,千百萬人民所受的苦難,著實給每個人上了一課,連英國的大學也不例外。

英國《衛報》質問,既然知識是幫助人類抵抗天然災害的最有效方式,為什麼英國的大學不培養多一點的地球物理學(geophysicists)人才呢?

緬甸風災給人類的第一個教訓是,為了避開災難,我們必須有所準備。我們需要自然地理學家確認易發生水患的地勢,和人文地理學家鑑定最容易被災難侵襲的社區。我們也需要水力工程師、風力工程、水文學者、氣象學者和海洋學者預測將發生的事情,接著我們更需要通訊工程師、分析師和訊息傳播者通力合作,將這些訊息傳達給政府,並由政府告知民眾。

當然,我們還需要負責任的文化。地方、都會區和國家部會等單位必須瞭解事態的嚴重性,並且把消息散播出去。這是因為,往往有錢又有權的人都住在安全的地方,且是最快獲得消息的一群,貧窮的弱勢族群則成為災難發生的無辜犧牲者。

而第二個教訓是,在災難發生後還強調國家主權、隔離與國家安全,是沒有意義的。如果緬甸在軍政權統治的40年內發展成開放的民主國家,與他國有互動,或許情況不會這麼糟糕。

理論上,緬甸政府能取得的天氣預報和其他國家應該是一樣的。但是要讓世界氣象組織和許多南亞國家監測系統的訊息完全發揮作用,國內需要有一定程度的新聞自由、負責任的媒體、為人民與政府服務的公務員,以及願意尊重人民權力的政府。我們必須明白,雖然預防天然災害的費用非常昂貴,但是天災發生時如果毫無準備,所面對的損失將更大。

第三個教訓是,不管這個暴風雨的毀滅性有多強,它仍然可能造成更大的傷害。

這是由於人口成長和經濟發展的必然結果,所以就算人類目前遇到的暴風雨和洪水規模沒有擴大,潛在災民的數目還是會一直增加。

面對氣象,我們需要進行更多技術上的研究工作。以熱帶氣旋為例,它並非只是一個具破壞性的氣候型態,而應該是引發創造工作的契機。發展中國家需要更多自然科學和社會科學人才、工程師、行政人員和有遠見的醫療投資。

每一次的災難都在提醒人類對地球的認識多麼不足,而每一次天災都提醒我們,知識是有力量的。如果人類可預測發生的事情,就沒有藉口不去針對它作防範措施。

根據2006年地質學會(Geological Society)所做的調查結果顯示,到了2030年時,英國將沒有地球物理系的大學畢業生。沒有學士人才,就不會有碩士或是博士;而沒有相關專家,在天災發生時我們只能束手無策。

如果英國的大學依舊像現在一樣,只訓練少量的數學、物理、化學與地球科學的畢業生,那麼有一天當災難來臨時,這群少數人將不足以派上用場。

http://education.guardian.co.uk/higher/comment/story/0,,2278280,00.html
(回目錄)



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